2027 PhD vs Professional Doctorate in Human Resources: Key Differences, Careers, and Salary Outcomes
Co-Founder and Chief Data Scientist
Choosing between a PhD and a professional doctorate in human resources is really a choice between creating research and applying research to solve workplace problems. The decision matters because BLS May 2024 wage data places human resources managers at a median annual wage of $140,030, but senior roles increasingly require evidence-based leadership, analytics, and change-management skill.
This guide is for HR professionals, future faculty, consultants, and leaders comparing doctoral options. You will learn how the two paths differ in focus, admissions, cost, career fit, salary context, and long-term value.
Key Things You Should Know
- A PhD in human resources is best for original research, tenure-track teaching, academic publishing, and research-intensive policy or consulting roles, while a professional doctorate such as a DBA, DM, or EdD is designed for senior HR leadership, workforce strategy, organizational change, and applied problem-solving.
- Cost and funding often differ sharply: many full-time PhD programs offer assistantships or tuition remission, while professional doctorates are more often part-time and self-funded; NCES graduate tuition data published in 2024 shows average annual graduate tuition and required fees were about $12,600 at public institutions and about $30,000 at private nonprofit institutions.
- Salary depends more on occupation, industry, experience, and scope of responsibility than on the doctorate label; BLS May 2024 data reports median wages of $140,030 for human resources managers, $140,360 for compensation and benefits managers, and $125,040 for training and development managers.
What Is the Difference Between a PhD and a Professional Doctorate in Human Resources?
A PhD in human resources is a research doctorate. It prepares students to build new knowledge about topics such as employee motivation, labor relations, selection systems, compensation strategy, diversity and inclusion, leadership, work design, or people analytics. In practice, many HR-related PhD programs are housed in business schools, industrial-organizational psychology departments, labor and employment relations schools, or organizational behavior programs rather than under a standalone "human resources" label.
A professional doctorate in human resources is an applied doctorate. It may be titled Doctor of Business Administration, Doctor of Management, Doctor of Education in Organizational Leadership, or Doctor of Strategic Leadership with an HR, human capital, organizational development, or workforce leadership concentration. Its purpose is to help experienced professionals use research to improve real organizations.
The table below summarizes the most important distinction: a PhD usually asks, "What new knowledge can I contribute?" A professional doctorate usually asks, "How can research improve a complex workplace problem?"
| Comparison area | PhD in human resources | Professional doctorate in human resources |
| Primary purpose | Produce original research and prepare for academic or research careers | Apply research to improve HR practice, leadership, and organizational outcomes |
| Typical degree names | PhD in Human Resource Management, Organizational Behavior, Industrial-Organizational Psychology, Labor Relations, or Management | DBA, DM, EdD, or DSL with a human resources, human capital, organizational leadership, or workforce strategy focus |
| Best fit | Future professors, research scientists, academic authors, and research consultants | Senior HR leaders, chief human resources officers, consultants, talent executives, and organizational change leaders |
| Research expectation | Original theoretical or empirical contribution to the field | Applied research addressing a defined organizational or professional problem |
| Common format | Often full-time and campus-based, especially at research universities | Often part-time, hybrid, or online for working professionals |
| Career signal | Deep research training and preparation for scholarly contribution | Advanced practice expertise and executive-level problem-solving ability |
The better degree is not the one with the more prestigious-sounding title. It is the one that matches your intended work. If you want to publish in peer-reviewed journals, teach as a professor, or study workforce behavior scientifically, a PhD is usually the stronger fit. If you want to lead HR transformation, design enterprise talent systems, advise executives, or solve workforce challenges inside organizations, a professional doctorate may be more practical.
A common mistake is assuming a PhD is always "higher" than a professional doctorate. Both are terminal degrees, but they answer different career questions. Employers in industry may value applied doctoral work when it is tied to measurable business outcomes, while universities hiring tenure-track faculty usually expect a PhD or a research-intensive doctorate with strong publications.
How Do PhD and Professional Doctorate Curricula, Research, and Capstone Requirements Differ in Human Resources?
Curriculum is where the two pathways begin to feel very different. Both may cover HR strategy, organizational behavior, leadership, research methods, and labor-market issues, but the depth and purpose of the work are not the same. PhD programs usually emphasize theory-building and advanced methodology; professional doctorates emphasize diagnosis, implementation, evaluation, and executive decision-making.
The table below shows how the learning experience typically differs, especially in the research sequence and final doctoral project:
| Program component | PhD pathway | Professional doctorate pathway |
| Core coursework | Organizational theory, strategic HRM, labor economics, research design, statistics, qualitative methods, organizational behavior | Strategic HR leadership, organizational change, talent development, workforce analytics, ethics, consulting, executive decision-making |
| Methods training | Usually deeper quantitative, qualitative, experimental, or mixed-methods preparation | Usually sufficient to evaluate and conduct applied research in organizational settings |
| Residency or seminars | Research seminars, doctoral colloquia, academic conferences, faculty-supervised research | Executive seminars, applied residencies, cohort workshops, leadership labs, consulting-style projects |
| Final project | Dissertation intended to make an original scholarly contribution | Applied dissertation, doctoral capstone, consulting project, or practice-based research study |
| Audience for final work | Academic committee, journal reviewers, scholarly community | Faculty committee, organizational stakeholders, executive sponsors, professional community |
| Typical outcome | New theory, empirical evidence, or scholarly model | Evidence-based solution, intervention, evaluation, or strategic recommendation |
A PhD dissertation in human resources might test how algorithmic screening affects perceived fairness in hiring or examine whether pay transparency changes retention patterns across employee groups. A professional doctorate capstone might evaluate an organization's turnover problem, design an evidence-based retention intervention, and measure implementation outcomes.
If you are comparing programs, pay close attention to the final project language. The following differences can affect your workload, career signal, and fit:
- Dissertation scope: PhD dissertations usually require an original contribution to scholarly literature, while professional doctorate projects may focus on solving a specific organizational problem.
- Data access: PhD students may use public datasets, lab studies, surveys, or archival organizational data; professional doctorate students often need access to a workplace, client organization, or professional network.
- Publication expectations: PhD programs may expect conference papers, journal submissions, and faculty co-authorship; professional doctorates may emphasize executive reports, applied frameworks, or implementation evidence.
- Faculty mentorship: PhD students usually work closely with research-active faculty; professional doctorate students may work with faculty who combine scholarship and practitioner expertise.
Current HR trends make this distinction more important. AI-enabled hiring tools, predictive people analytics, skills-based workforce planning, hybrid work, and employee experience measurement all require evidence-based thinking. A PhD may prepare you to study whether these systems work and publish findings. A professional doctorate may prepare you to select, govern, implement, and evaluate these systems inside an organization.
What Are the Admissions Requirements for a PhD vs Professional Doctorate in Human Resources?
Admissions requirements vary by school, but PhD programs usually evaluate research potential more heavily, while professional doctorates usually evaluate leadership experience and applied problem-solving potential. Some HR-related PhD programs admit students with a bachelor's degree, but many applicants are stronger with a relevant master's degree, research experience, statistics preparation, or faculty-aligned interests.
For applicants who are not ready for doctoral study, a master's degree can be a practical bridge. Programs such as the best online masters degree in human resource management programs can help build HR strategy, employment law, analytics, and organizational behavior foundations before applying for a doctorate.
The table below compares typical admissions expectations so you can evaluate your readiness before spending time and money on applications:
| Requirement | PhD in human resources | Professional doctorate in human resources |
| Prior degree | Bachelor's or master's, depending on the program; master's often helpful | Usually master's preferred or required, especially for executive-format programs |
| Work experience | Helpful but not always required; research fit may matter more | Often important; many programs prefer mid-career or senior professionals |
| Research statement | Central to the application; should align with faculty expertise | May be required, but usually framed around an applied problem or leadership agenda |
| Writing sample | Often important, especially for research programs | May include professional writing, applied research, or leadership-related work |
| Test scores | GRE or GMAT may be optional, waived, or required depending on school | Often test-optional, especially for experienced professionals, but policies vary |
| Recommendations | Academic references are valuable; research supervisors are especially helpful | Professional and academic references are both useful; executive sponsors may help |
Before applying, take these practical steps to reduce the risk of choosing the wrong pathway:
- Identify whether your main goal is academic research, university teaching, executive HR leadership, consulting, or organizational transformation.
- Review faculty profiles and recent dissertations or capstones to see whether the program supports your topic.
- Ask whether students receive statistics, research design, and analytics preparation that matches your intended career.
- Confirm whether the final project requires access to an employer, client organization, or proprietary HR data.
- Request career outcome examples, not just broad claims about leadership or advancement.
A major red flag is a program that accepts almost any topic but cannot name faculty with expertise in HR, organizational behavior, labor relations, people analytics, or workforce strategy. At the doctoral level, mentorship quality often matters as much as the course list.
Time to completion depends on enrollment status, dissertation progress, funding, and whether you enter with a master's degree. In general, PhD programs are longer and more immersive because students complete advanced research training, comprehensive exams, faculty-supervised research, and a dissertation. Professional doctorates are often structured for working adults, but they still require sustained writing, data collection, and independent research.
The table below gives realistic planning ranges rather than promises. Individual programs may be shorter or longer depending on credit requirements, transfer policies, dissertation pace, and whether students pause for work or family responsibilities.
| Factor | PhD pathway | Professional doctorate pathway |
| Typical duration | About 4 to 7 years, especially for full-time research programs | About 3 to 5 years, often designed around part-time enrollment |
| Enrollment pattern | Often full-time; part-time options are less common at research-intensive universities | Often part-time, online, hybrid, or cohort-based |
| Ability to work full time | Difficult in funded full-time programs because assistantships and research obligations can be substantial | More feasible because many programs are built for employed professionals |
| Biggest timeline risk | Dissertation design, data collection, publishing pressure, and academic job-market preparation | Capstone scope creep, limited access to organizational data, and balancing executive workload |
| Schedule intensity | High weekly research, teaching, seminar, and writing demands | High but often more predictable, with residencies, online modules, and project milestones |
Working while studying is usually easier in a professional doctorate, but "easier" does not mean light. A doctoral capstone can require interviews, surveys, workplace data analysis, stakeholder management, and multiple rounds of faculty review. If your job involves travel, crisis response, or long HR transformation cycles, ask programs how they support students during data collection and writing.
For PhD applicants, the work question is more complicated. A funded PhD may provide a stipend, tuition support, and health insurance, but students are often expected to teach, assist with research, attend seminars, and publish. Outside employment may be restricted by program policy or simply unrealistic because doctoral training is treated as a full-time job.
A practical way to evaluate fit is to map the next five years of your life. If you can relocate, live on a stipend, and prioritize scholarship, the PhD structure may work. If you want to remain employed and use your workplace as a learning laboratory, a professional doctorate may be more sustainable.
Cost is one of the biggest differences between the two pathways. Many research-oriented PhD programs, especially at universities with strong doctoral funding, offer assistantships that reduce tuition and provide a stipend. Professional doctorates are more commonly tuition-driven programs for working adults, so students may rely on employer tuition assistance, savings, federal loans, or payment plans.
NCES graduate tuition data published in 2024 shows why funding matters: average annual graduate tuition and required fees were about $12,600 at public institutions and about $30,000 at private nonprofit institutions. Because doctoral programs often take several years, even modest annual differences can become major total-cost differences.
If cost is the main barrier, you may want to compare doctoral options with lower-cost master's alternatives first; resources such as the cheapest online master's in human resources can help you decide whether a doctorate is necessary now or whether a lower-cost credential can support your next career move.
The table below breaks down cost categories that students often overlook when comparing a funded PhD with a self-funded professional doctorate:
| Cost factor | PhD pathway | Professional doctorate pathway |
| Tuition | May be covered fully or partly by assistantship, fellowship, or grant funding | Often paid by student, employer, military benefits, or loans |
| Stipend or salary impact | Students may receive a stipend but may give up full-time professional income | Students often keep their salary while studying part-time |
| Fees and residencies | Campus fees, conference travel, research software, and relocation can add cost | Online fees, residencies, travel, technology fees, and applied project costs can add cost |
| Opportunity cost | High if leaving a well-paid HR role for full-time study | Lower if employment continues, but workload can affect performance and promotion timing |
| Funding competitiveness | Strong funding can be available, but admission is often highly selective | Funding is less common, though employer assistance may offset part of tuition |
To compare affordability, do not stop at published tuition. Ask each school for a complete cost estimate and evaluate funding in writing. Strong questions include:
- Is tuition remission guaranteed for all funded years, or does it depend on annual renewal?
- What stipend, assistantship, fellowship, or employer-partner funding is available?
- Are residencies, dissertation credits, technology fees, research software, and continuation fees included in the estimate?
- How many students finish within the advertised timeframe?
- What happens financially if the dissertation or capstone takes extra terms?
The "better funding" answer usually favors the PhD, but the "better financial fit" depends on your situation. A fully funded PhD can be financially attractive for someone entering academia, but it may still require years of reduced earnings. A professional doctorate may cost more out of pocket, but it can allow you to keep a senior HR salary while studying.
Career outcomes differ because the two degrees send different signals. A PhD signals research depth, methodological expertise, and readiness for scholarly work. A professional doctorate signals executive-level practice, applied research ability, and the capacity to lead complex organizational change.
HR careers increasingly overlap with adjacent fields such as operations, analytics, organizational development, and transformation management. Professionals interested in cross-functional leadership may also compare HR doctoral study with a project management degree, especially if their goal is to lead large workforce technology, change, or process-improvement initiatives.
The table below connects each doctorate type to common career paths, but it is not a guarantee of job eligibility. Employers may weigh experience, industry background, certifications, publications, and leadership record as heavily as the doctorate itself.
| Career path | Better-aligned doctorate | Typical responsibilities | What strengthens candidacy |
| Tenure-track professor in management, HRM, labor relations, or organizational behavior | PhD | Teach, publish research, mentor students, serve on academic committees | Peer-reviewed publications, research agenda, teaching experience, faculty recommendations |
| HR research scientist or people analytics researcher | PhD or research-heavy professional doctorate | Design studies, analyze workforce data, evaluate HR interventions, produce evidence for decision-making | Statistics, research design, data ethics, analytics tools, publication, or applied research portfolio |
| Chief human resources officer or senior HR executive | Professional doctorate | Lead HR strategy, talent systems, culture, compensation, employee relations, and workforce planning | Executive experience, business acumen, change leadership, board-level communication |
| Organizational development or change consultant | Professional doctorate or PhD | Diagnose organizational problems, design interventions, facilitate change, measure outcomes | Consulting portfolio, facilitation skill, applied research, industry specialization |
| Compensation, benefits, or total rewards leader | Professional doctorate or PhD | Design pay systems, evaluate labor-market data, manage incentives, align rewards with strategy | Quantitative skill, regulatory knowledge, executive compensation experience |
| Policy researcher or workforce strategy analyst | PhD | Study labor-market trends, employment systems, workforce equity, and organizational policy | Research publications, econometrics or policy methods, grants, or think-tank experience |
Choose a PhD if your target job rewards scholarly productivity. That includes faculty roles, academic research centers, and research-heavy consulting practices where publications and methods training matter. Choose a professional doctorate if your target job rewards applied leadership, enterprise impact, and the ability to translate evidence into action.
Students sometimes overlook hybrid careers. For example, an HR executive with a professional doctorate may teach as an adjunct instructor or executive educator, while a PhD graduate may move into consulting or people analytics. The degree does not lock you into one path, but it does shape your strongest initial positioning.
Neither a PhD nor a professional doctorate automatically pays more in human resources. Salary outcomes are driven by role, industry, location, organization size, leadership scope, bonus eligibility, and years of experience. A professional doctorate may support advancement into executive HR leadership, while a PhD may support academic, research, analytics, or specialized consulting roles. The degree matters most when it aligns with the job's value system.
BLS May 2024 wage data provides a useful salary baseline for HR-adjacent careers, though it does not separate workers by doctorate type. Use the figures below as occupational context, not as predicted earnings for a specific graduate.
| Occupation | Relevant doctorate fit | Median annual wage, BLS May 2024 | How to interpret the figure |
| Human resources managers | Professional doctorate often aligns well; PhD may fit research-driven HR strategy roles | $140,030 | Reflects management roles broadly; senior executives may have different compensation structures |
| Compensation and benefits managers | Professional doctorate or quantitative PhD | $140,360 | Strong fit for professionals with analytics, rewards strategy, and regulatory expertise |
| Training and development managers | Professional doctorate, EdD, or PhD in organizational learning | $125,040 | Relevant for leadership development, learning strategy, and workforce capability roles |
| Management analysts | Professional doctorate or PhD depending on consulting focus | $101,190 | Useful proxy for HR consultants and organizational effectiveness advisors, but consulting pay varies widely |
| Human resources specialists | Doctorate usually not required | $72,910 | Shows why doctoral ROI is weaker if the degree does not lead to higher-scope responsibilities |
The salary comparison becomes clearer when you compare career setting rather than degree name:
- Academic track: A PhD is usually the stronger credential for tenure-track faculty roles, but academic pay varies by institution type, discipline, publication record, and rank.
- Executive HR track: A professional doctorate may be more directly relevant for CHRO, vice president of HR, talent strategy, or organizational transformation roles, but advancement depends heavily on leadership results.
- Consulting track: Either degree can work; clients often value a combination of credibility, methods skill, industry expertise, and a record of measurable outcomes.
- People analytics track: A PhD can be valuable for advanced research design, but a professional doctorate can be competitive if paired with strong data, technology, and business translation skills.
The most common salary mistake is comparing a funded PhD stipend to a senior HR salary or comparing doctoral tuition to a future executive salary without considering probability, time, and role fit. A better approach is to define the specific job you want, check whether people in that role commonly hold doctorates, and estimate the degree's value relative to experience, certifications, and internal promotion pathways.
The job outlook for doctoral-level HR graduates is mixed but generally favorable when the doctorate supports growing workforce needs. Employers are investing in people analytics, AI governance, leadership development, retention, culture, skills-based hiring, and workforce planning. At the same time, tenure-track academic jobs remain competitive, so PhD students should evaluate both academic and nonacademic options.
Latest BLS 2024-2034 projections show why role choice matters: employment for human resources managers is projected to grow 6%, management analysts 9%, and postsecondary teachers 7%. These projections suggest steady demand for advanced workforce and organizational expertise, but they do not mean every doctoral graduate will find a role that requires a doctorate.
The table below connects labor-market direction to practical degree choice. It can help you decide whether you need deep research training, applied leadership training, or a different credential altogether.
| Market trend | Why it matters for HR doctorate students | Degree path that may fit best |
| AI in hiring and workforce analytics | Organizations need leaders who understand fairness, validation, data governance, and employee trust | PhD for research and validation; professional doctorate for implementation and governance |
| Hybrid work and organizational redesign | Employers need evidence-based approaches to productivity, culture, collaboration, and engagement | Professional doctorate for applied change; PhD for studying work-design outcomes |
| Skills-based hiring and internal mobility | HR teams need better systems for skills data, career pathways, and workforce planning | Professional doctorate for enterprise talent strategy; PhD for labor market or organizational research |
| Competition for faculty roles | Academic hiring often depends on publications, research fit, and institutional priorities | PhD is usually preferred, with strong research productivity essential |
| Growth in consulting and transformation work | Organizations seek advisors who can diagnose problems and measure intervention impact | Either path, depending on whether the consulting model is research-heavy or practice-heavy |
To improve job-market resilience, doctoral students should avoid building a narrow profile. A PhD student should develop teaching, analytics, and nonacademic communication skills in addition to publishing. A professional doctorate student should document measurable workplace impact, not just complete coursework.
Another red flag is choosing a doctoral topic that is interesting but disconnected from employer demand. Topics such as AI governance in HR, pay equity analytics, employee retention, leadership development, workforce agility, and organizational change are easier to translate into career value than topics with little practical or scholarly audience.
Accreditation matters because doctoral programs vary widely in quality, recognition, and employer credibility. At minimum, the institution should hold recognized institutional accreditation. For business-school doctorates, programmatic accreditation from bodies such as AACSB, ACBSP, or IACBE may strengthen credibility, especially for academic or business faculty pathways. For education-based professional doctorates, educator-preparation accreditation may matter only if the program is tied to school leadership roles.
Human resources itself is not generally a licensed profession in the way counseling, law, nursing, or psychology may be. However, licensure can become relevant if your doctoral path overlaps with industrial-organizational psychology practice, counseling, legal compliance, or education administration. Requirements vary by state and role, so do not assume an HR doctorate qualifies you for regulated practice.
The table below highlights what to verify before enrolling, because accreditation and recognition can affect transferability, faculty opportunities, employer reimbursement, and long-term value.
| Quality check | Why it matters | What to confirm |
| Institutional accreditation | Basic credibility, federal financial aid eligibility, and employer recognition often depend on it | School is accredited by a recognized institutional accreditor |
| Programmatic accreditation | Can matter for business faculty roles, employer perception, or academic reputation | Business, management, or education accreditation aligns with your career goal |
| Faculty expertise | Doctoral quality depends heavily on mentorship and topic fit | Faculty publish or practice in HR, organizational behavior, workforce analytics, labor relations, or leadership |
| Dissertation or capstone standards | Weak standards can reduce credibility | Final projects require rigorous methods, faculty review, and clear contribution |
| Employer recognition | Some employers reimburse only accredited or job-related programs | HR, finance, or talent-development leaders recognize the credential and format |
| Licensure implications | Some adjacent roles may require separate credentials | State board or employer requirements are reviewed before enrollment |
Employer recognition also depends on format and reputation. Online and hybrid doctorates are common, especially for professional programs, but students should verify whether the program includes meaningful faculty interaction, research supervision, cohort support, and transparent completion outcomes.
Do not choose a program based only on speed. Very short timelines, vague dissertation requirements, unusually aggressive admissions promises, or unclear accreditation language are warning signs. A credible doctorate should be demanding enough to develop expertise and transparent enough for you to understand what you are buying.
Is a PhD or Professional Doctorate in Human Resources Worth It for Your Career Goals?
A doctorate in human resources can be worth it when it is tied to a specific career outcome that truly benefits from doctoral-level preparation. It is less likely to be worth it if you are using the degree as a general promotion tool, avoiding a career decision, or assuming the credential alone will raise your salary.
If your goals are closer to organizational development, leadership consulting, or change management than traditional HR administration, comparing doctoral options with the best organizational development master's programs online can help you decide whether a master's-level credential, certificate, or doctorate is the right next step.
Use the following decision guide to match the degree to your strongest goal:
- Choose a PhD if you want to become a professor, publish original HR or organizational behavior research, compete for research roles, or build deep expertise in methods and theory.
- Choose a professional doctorate if you want to remain in industry, lead HR transformation, consult with executives, solve workforce problems, or apply research directly to organizational strategy.
- Consider a master's or certificate instead if you need practical HR advancement, SHRM or HRCI certification preparation, analytics skills, or leadership development but do not need doctoral research training.
- Delay doctoral study if you cannot define the career outcome, funding plan, time commitment, or research problem you want to pursue.
Common mistakes can be expensive at the doctoral level. Avoid these before you commit:
- Assuming the PhD is always more valuable: A PhD is often stronger for academia, but a professional doctorate may be more relevant for executive HR practice.
- Ignoring opportunity cost: A funded PhD can still be costly if it requires leaving a high-paying HR role for several years.
- Choosing only by tuition: Low tuition is helpful, but weak mentorship, poor completion support, or limited employer recognition can reduce value.
- Comparing salaries too broadly: Salary should be evaluated by target occupation, industry, geography, and leadership level, not by degree title alone.
- Overlooking data access: A capstone or dissertation may stall if you cannot access employees, HR records, surveys, or organizational stakeholders.
- Skipping accreditation checks: Accreditation, faculty quality, and dissertation rigor affect credibility, reimbursement, and academic options.
A practical next step is to write a one-page doctorate business case for yourself. Include your target role, preferred degree type, expected time commitment, total cost, funding source, research topic, and the specific skills or credentials you cannot obtain through a shorter program. If the case is clear, a doctorate may be a strong investment. If it feels vague, choose a lower-risk credential first or keep refining your career goal.
Other Things You Should Know About Human Resources
Yes. Online and hybrid professional doctorates are common because many are designed for working HR leaders. Online PhD options exist but are less common in research-intensive fields, and students should verify faculty mentorship, dissertation support, residencies, and accreditation before applying.
Not always, but certifications can still help. A doctorate signals advanced academic or applied expertise, while SHRM and HRCI credentials signal current professional HR knowledge. For many industry roles, the combination of experience, certification, and advanced education may be stronger than any one credential alone.
No. A DBA is usually a professional doctorate focused on applied business problems, while a PhD is usually a research doctorate focused on original scholarly contribution. Both can be rigorous, but they are designed for different career outcomes.
It may qualify you for some adjunct, practitioner faculty, executive education, or teaching-focused roles, especially when paired with strong professional experience. Tenure-track research faculty roles usually prefer or require a PhD and evidence of scholarly publication.
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